Evaluation of a Modernist Approach through Buildings in Kayseri, Turkey

Kayseri was an important commercial city throughout history, and with the declaration of the Republic, it continued its importance in different areas. The city has many original buildings from the Early Republican Period and was a model of modernisation set on a western ideology. Modernisation of the Republic was started with industrialisation. Consequently, Kayseri became an industrial city in the early 20th century. Investments (both economic and spatial) made by government were later continued by the private sector. Industrialisation was seen as the most important dynamic of development and key to modernisation. This situation resulted in the establishment of a new Kayseri around the industrial area and was viewed as an example for a modern Turkey. These industrial areas were constructed close to the boundary of the city centre. At the same time, the city centre was reconstructed according to modern city planning and the new style (modern style). The ceremonial ground (city square), an urban grid system, wide main transport routes, new public and municipal buildings, which were symbols of international style, were constructed by destroying the historic city centre in the Early Republic Period. The Republic was not only constructing new public buildings in a modern style; it was tried to build a new life with the modern residential areas. Instead of the traditional dwellings, modern houses were constructed to illustrate the new lifestyle together with new functional buildings such as modern education complexes, a community centre, stadium and train station were all constructed to show how to live the modern life. The city gained a new face with the changes starting from 1930. Today, many buildings, belonging to the Early Republican Period, are not being considered in the conservation of cultural heritage and are in danger. Industrial complexes, residential areas, public places are seen as a building stock destined to disappear and be replaced by new buildings. These earlier buildings hold important historical, social, economic and political values. Similarly, construction techniques and materials were also unique for that period. The aim of this study is to draw attention to the 20th century buildings in Kayseri constructed in the Early Republic Period, and classify these buildings under different headings (industry, housing, public space, educational space, open spaces) with the photographs, plans and history, thus defining their values and why they must be conserved.


Introduction
The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı) broke out at the beginning of the 20 th century, the country economically, politically and socially collapsed. The subsequent Republic was seen as a reform and sign of political independence. The reforms in the economy and social life were needed in order to provide adaptation and acceptance for the new administration system. The modernisation process of Turkey during the Early Republican Period also incorporated the construction of a new built environment (Ahmad, 1993).
If the Republic of Turkey was to make economic progress, it could declare both economic and political independence. For economic independence, the administration prepared new plans and programmes. The First Five-Year Development Plan of Turkey was prepared and put into action by the Republican Public Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi) (Boratav, 1989). According to the plan, economic progress could be achieved through industrialisation. Early Republican Turkey experienced attempts at industrialisation and social transformations as a part of the modernisation project. Initially, government tried to encourage the private sector to invest in industry; however, at that time there was little money available for investment (Boratav, 1989).
Consequently, private sector investment for industrialisation was very limited, and as a result, the government changed its policy of industrialisation into statism 1 . Statism targeted economic process by the construction of new factories in various cities (Aslanoğlu, 1986). What made statism different from socialism was that statism was a new mixed economic system project and was assisted by The First Five-Year Progress Plan. Statism targeted not only economic improvement, but also social improvement and modernisation (Boratav, 1982).
According to this plan, many factories were constructed in various cities of Turkey. Factories were not only manufacturing, they also showed off the new modern life with different functions such as power-stations, warehouses, iron foundries, dancehalls, theatres, clubhouses, nurseries, infirmaries, sports fields and dwellings (Aslanoğlu, 2001). These complexes were accepted as small modern cities, and people who lived around the factory observed westernisation 2 . These complexes marked social and economic process and were examples of the modernisation project of the new state not only with the formal and spatial characteristics of their buildings but also with what they provided functionally in developing the industrial and social transformation of the workers in Anatolia. One of the cities in which investments were made was Kayseri. Kayseri was selected as one of the models of a modern city due to its strategic location and industrial background in the Early Republican Period (Bozdoğan, 1994).

Kayseri's Development with the Republic 2.1 Brief History of Kayseri
Kayseri has been a continuous settlement since 3000 BC. The city has been a vital trade centre as it lies on what was the Great Silk Road. Being one of the three oldest cities founded in Anatolia as well as its proximity to major 1 The principle or policy of concentrating extensive economic, political, and related controls in the state at the cost of individual liberty (http://www.dictionary.com/browse/statism). 2 In some underdeveloped countries, it is believed that a society life similar to those of the societies can be formed by taking the political, education and practice institutions formed in Western European societies and believing that societies can be traced in this way. trade routes, the city bears one of the oldest historical heritages on the planet.
There were three golden age periods for Kayseri. First, dating back to 2000 BC, the city was the trading post between the Assyrians and the Hittite empire. The second golden age was during 200-300 AD under Roman rule; at one point the population of the city was almost half a million. The third golden age was during the reign of the Seljuks when the city was the second capital of the state. The short-lived Seljuk rule left a large number of historical landmarks; historical buildings such as Hunad-Hatun complex, Kilicarslan mosque, The Grand Mosque and Gevher Nesibe asylum, all belonging to the Seljuq Era (Karatepe, 2005). In the Ottoman Period, Kayseri maintained its importance, and many new buildings were constructed such as mosques and Turkish baths. However, beginning the 20 th century, the city was partly ruined and had economic problems as the Ottoman Empire lost its power as a result of various wars (Çayırdağ, 2001).
In the 1900 yearbook of Ankara Province, Kayseri's population was 49,498. Of this, 63.2 % were Muslim, 36.8 % were Non-Muslim (Kayseri Büyükşehir Belediyesi, 2011).  around 1920 (wowturkey, 2007) People from different religions were living together, which affected many aspects of daily life including architecture, economic facilities, and education. The 1925-26 Turkish Republic yearbook reveals the population as 200,225. Of this, 97.9 % of the population were Muslim, and the remaining 2.1 % were a Non-Muslim minority (Kayseri Büyükşehir Belediyesi, 2011). It is understood from the numbers that the minority changed between 1900 and 1925. As a result, the Kayseri population was mostly Muslim at the beginning of the Republic.

Modernisation and industrialisation in Kayseri in the Early Republic Period
Kayseri became a province according to the new constitution in 1924 by administration (Tekinsoy, 2011). The state encouraged industrialisation in Kayseri, which had been a trade centre since ancient times. Kayseri was a part of the country that had just come out of the war, whose consequences were being felt throughout the country. Those living in Kayseri were trying to adapt to the new political system and new modern life, as in the other parts of Turkey, and at the same time with limited money; the administration was also attempting to invest in industry in the city (Karatepe, 2005).
Kayseri was industrially advanced compared to the circumstances in the 19 th century. Industry was generally associated with agricultural and natural resources, which could be readily accessed. Metal and carpet production was very productive and were important businesses at that time (Tekinsoy, 2011). Saltpetre 3 production was very active as it had been used in the war industry and was the first modern industrial product of Kayseri. The saltpetre was produced in Güherçile Fabrika-i Hümayun 4 and sent to Istanbul. In the Ankara 1882-1883 yearbook, it was stated that there were eight factories in Kayseri (Köroğlu, 1992).
The major industrial products of Kayseri at the beginning of the 20 th century were rhamnus, opium, saltpetre and pastrami. Besides these, leather production, fleece, gum tragacanth, linseed oil and tallow production were important. In the weaving sector, carpets, rugs, head scarfs, sacks, bags, and black tents were significant. At the beginning of the 20 th century, there was a branch of T.C.
Ziraat Bank 5 in the city. In 1916, two local banks were also opened in Kayseri, which were owned by tradesman and landowners. These banks were closed down in the 1930s. Kayseri had 1,096 workplaces according to the 1927 industrial census. The agriculture-based industry, metal goodsmachine production, weaving and forest products were focused areas. According to that census, 55 % of the workplaces were agricultural, and 63 % of the workers were in the weaving sector in 1927 (Köroğlu, 1992). The most outstanding reason for Kayseri being chosen as a site for a factory was its industrial basis. There had been an increase in industry and trade in Kayseri as in the whole country after the Republic. Infrastructure development had already been provided to these industrial areas; railroad construction begun in Ottoman times continued in the Republican Period. Kayseri's railroad connections with Ankara (1927), Sivas (1930), and Çukurova through Niğde (1933) were supplied (Kayseri Büyükşehir Belediyesi, 2011). The location of the city was also strategic for investments because important highway networks were passing nearby.
There were three important private sector investments in Kayseri as a result of the liberal economic policies between the years 1923 and 1930. The first investment was central electricity production from Bünyan Falls, which was constructed to produce electricity for Kayseri city centre, with the remaining electricity used by small villages nearby. "Kayseri ve Çivarı Elektirik Santrali" 6 was established for Bünyan Electricity Production Central in 1926. Bünyan Electricity Production Central was one of the first examples of the "build-operate-transfer" model, which meant that the government constructed the building, then started to manage it and later sold or rented the company to the private investor to operate (Blog milliyet). The second investment was in the thread factory in Bünyan. This factory was established by taking advantage of Encouragement of Industry Law. The third was a flour mill factory (1932). This business was the first flour factory established by local entrepreneurs that is still active. The flour mill factory was established with a privilege license from the administration, which was known as a certificate of encouragement for the private sector to invest in industry (Köroğlu, 1992).
The administration also started to construct new factories in Kayseri city centre. One of them was an aircraft factory, which was constructed in 1926 by German experts. Another was a textile factory designed and constructed by the Soviet Union in 1935. The two factories 7 financed by loans from Germany, the Soviet Union and the US, affected all aspects of public lifestyle (Eldek Güner, 2007) asthey symbolised the modern life of the West with their design, construction, details, materials and quality of life; they were also symbols of the new Republic of Turkey. Besides industrial investments, new dwellings, public buildings such as banks, administration buildings, hospitals, educational buildings and parks were constructed. All construction effectively devastated the historical part of the city. The administration showed new life, which was the ideology of the Republic, with a new city plan and new "modern" buildings, which effectively erased the historical background of the city.

Examples of Modern Buildings in Kayseri during the Early Republic Period
Buildings designed in modern or international style, constructed at the beginning of the 20 th century, are called modern buildings in architectural literature (Frampton, 2007). In Kayseri, modern buildings constructed at that time can be classified into four groups: • Industrial buildings • Schools (Educational Buildings) • Public Buildings • Residential Buildings.
These categories are determined by building function. Function and the conservation status of buildings are the main issues in this classification. All these buildings are modern and western with their design approach, materials, construction techniques, plan organisation and need to make visible a western lifestyle.

Industrial Buildings
Industrialisation was the most important investment in the Early Republic Period. The Turkish Government believed that improvement was provided by industrialisation. Consequently, different functioning factories were constructed in different cities. Kayseri was also chosen as an industrial city of the New Republic. (Two factories are described in detail later in the paper.)

Aircraft Factory -1926 (Tayyare Fabrikası)
This complex was Turkey's first aircraft factory. It was constructed in 1926, with German support, using a steel construction system and was the first prefabricated building in Kayseri. Its main construction elements were transported from Germany by ship and then by train to Kayseri. The factory was constructed by German experts with Turkish workers as its construction details were relatively unique. It was also first steel construction in Kayseri. Seven huge hangars were constructed in a rectangular plan with steel vault superstructure.
During the 15 years, 150 planes were manufactured (Erdoğan and Öz, 2016). After this, the factory stopped producing planes due to political interference and started to manufacture individual parts. In time, the factory was used as a military flight centre but did not manufacture planes after the 1940s. Turkey could have produced planes, but the government preferred to buy all military or cargo planes from foreign nations (Sarısır, 1998).
Today, the factory is used as repair centre for military vehicles such as tanks. The army restored the buildings, conserving their original form. This area is a military zone, so entry is not easy; permission is required to enter the site. The Kayseri Aircraft Factory has political, social, economic, architectural values that need to be conserved. It was the first aircraft factory, designed by Germans; constructed with the cooperation of Germans and Turks, the construction techniques and material were unique in the 1930s with the factory also shaping the environment. New modern dwellings were constructed after the aircraft factory for employees, which also affecting the city planning of Kayseri.

Sümerbank Textile Factory
The first and most important of the industrial investments was Sümerbank Textile Factory established by Sümerbank in Kayseri. It was constructed not only for economic progress but also for social development according to Turkish government ideology in the 1930s. It was built in 1935 by Russian architects in a modernist approach, using a reinforced concrete system for the first time in Kayseri. They used a constructivist architectural style, which Russian architects used in their designs (Peri, 2002). The factory was not only a production site but also consisted of a range of social and service buildings with green areas.
Kayseri Sümerbank Bez Fabrikası was built on an area of 345,920 m 2 on the highway to Erkilet to the north of Kayseri. The complex consisted of an administration building, production building, social buildings (dance hall and clubhouse, sports field, residences) and service buildings (warehouses and iron foundry, electricity supply, entrance and infirmary). These buildings, which had different functions, were in the same area. However, opposite to the main road (Kayseri-Erkilet Road), a factory and residential buildings were constructed over the years. One of these was bachelor dwellings, constructed in 1937, with dwellings for workers, which were constructed in 1935 and 1942, and were outside of the area. The main production building of the factory was to the north of the administrative area and theatre, in the centre of the campus. Product storage was on the west of the main production area with the workers' dining hall, workshops (service, project) and foundry buildings. There was a cotton storage on the west of product storage. The railroad reached the warehouses to readily deliver raw materials and transport finished products. There was a railway between production, warehousing and workshops. The education building was on the north of the foundry with the electricity power station to the northwest.
Roads and landscaping were also carefully designed; ancillary roads between buildings were sized according to density, and forestation with landscaping was created along the road to the administrative building from the main gate.
Kayseri, as a city with a longstanding history, shaped its future with the Sümerbank Textile Factory. The factory is the basis of the city's industry, and it is still known as an industrial centre today. The Sümerbank Textile Factory had a very active role in the development of Kayseri and also Turkey with its educated workers, modern lifestyle and progress that it brought to the city. Kayseri Sümerbank Textile Factory was designed as a piece of "modernisation" (Eldek Güner, 2007). Kayseri Sümerbank Textile Factory began production in 1935 (Arıtan, 2004). On August 9 th , 1999, it was transferred free of charge to the Treasury for allocation of the area to Erciyes University according to the decision of the Privatisation Administration (Asiliskender, 2002). In time, the factory was demolished as it fell out of use and decay affected all parts of the buildings; vandalism was also a factor. Today, the factory is a new university campus of Kayseri. Abdullah Gül University took over the factory Fig. 3 Original drawings from 1935 (Eldek Güner, 2007) from Erciyes University and started a restoration project for the whole area. The conservation process is still continuing, but some of the buildings including the library, some offices, a social centre, where restoration has been completed, are now being used by students (Eldek Güner, 2017). The university aims to establish a new education system, like the Sümerbank Textile Factory, which was an education centre for Kayseri in the Early Republican Period. This complex's conservation is a very important and instructive example for the conservation of 20 th -century buildings in Turkey.

Schools (Educational Buildings)
Like economic development, educational development was also a very important issue during the Early Republic Period. The administration wanted to form a new education system and radically overhauled the existing system. First, the alphabet that had been used by the Ottoman Empire was changed; the alphabet was altered from Arabic to the Latin alphabet, and dimension units were changed. The new education system was established in original buildings which were designed according to modern style (Bozdoğan and Akcan, 2012). In Kayseri, many schools were constructed in that period; most of them are still used as their original function. The most important educational building is a technical high school for boys.

Technical High School for Boys
The Technical High School for Boys was designed by German architect Paul Bonatz who was famous in the 1900s. Bonatz was a director of the "Department of Building Works" 8 at the Ministry of Education (Oran, 1952). All over Turkey, many schools were constructed according to department's project proposals in the 1940s. The Technical High School for Boys was one of the prototype schools prepared by the Department of Building Works.
Construction was started in 1942 and completed in 1945. It was designed as a campus with social areas. However, during the implementation, only the educational sections were completed due to economic inadequacies (Işık, 2010). This school was the first prototype implementation of the education complexes that were constructed in Turkey. The construction was reinforced concrete and traditional masonry techniques. Its plan scheme was called "E plan" which meant that different aspects (electrical, furniture, iron workshops) were connected by the main circulation space. In the school, small studios, which were used for theoretical lessons, were located beside huge hangars, which were needed for the wide superstructure system. Today, it is still used with the same function. Because of the continuity, many parts of the school were conserved according to the original plan scheme, although, some original architectural elements such as doors windows, materials have been changed because of deterioration. This school was registered by the "Department of Conservation" 9 because of its political, social, economic, and architectural values. Firstly, it was Bonatz's design, so it is important because of this. It was one of the first implementations of the Early Republican Period administration's educational aim. It is also a unique example of modern architectural design and reinforced concrete system implementation in Kayseri. Consequently, it should be preserved for these values. 8 The department was responsible for the new educational buildings project and implementation all over Turkey during the Early Republic Period. 9 The department responsible for the conservation of historical buildings in Turkey. It operates within the Culture Ministry.

Public Buildings
After the Turkish War of Independence, the administration wanted to show new Turkey to the World through a modern architectural style. Consequently, they prepared an investment plan for the construction of huge, effective and new function public buildings. Most of the public buildings were built in Ankara to express the modern face of Turkey. Similarly, in other Anatolian cities, many public buildings were constructed to display the administration's new face to the public. The aim was to construct all public buildings on a single street to be known as Republic Street (Cumhuriyet Caddesi). This occurred all over Turkey with Kayseri's Republic Street containing the governor's office, schools, theatre, culture centre, post office, and museum. These were all new function buildings, two of which are further described.

Theatre
The theatre is constructed as a public house 10 established to inform the public about the new administration and its ideology (Yeşilkaya, 2003). Public Houses (Halk-evleri) had not only a social function; they were also important education buildings for citizens. A library, theatre, meeting space, and café were located in these buildings. Public Houses were constructed in all cities of Turkey as well as in some smaller towns for citizen education.
Kayseri Theatre (Public House) was designed by Leman Tomsu, who was one of the first woman architects in the Early Republic Period. In 1937, an architectural competition was held, and Leman Tomsu won the competition; its construction was completed in 1940.
10 Public Houses (Halk-evleri) were like a culture centre and functioned as theatre, library, cafe, and meeting building to inform people about new administration and its ideology. They were constructed all over the Turkey. Its establishment date was 1932 and closed in 1951. This Public House was very effective in providing information about the new administration, its legislation and exposing the population to a gradual westernisation. The two-storey building was constructed with a reinforced concrete system, and with it came a new lifestyle. The main function of the building was as a theatre, but it also included a library, meeting room, café and education rooms.
Over time, Public Houses lost their importance, and by 1951 all of them were closed and given over to new uses. Kayseri Public House was also closed, with its theatre saloon only being used occasionally. In 2003, it was restored by the municipality of Kayseri. Its original plan was not conserved; the theatre saloon was enlarged, new furniture and a lighting system was added removing much of the original internal aspects of the building. However, its façade organisation and original construction techniques were still preserved. This building and its conservation are very important because it was a part of the Public House construction that brought modernisation to the Early Republican Period. It was also one of the first competition project implementations in the 1940s and stands as a document of architectural history.

Residential Buildings
Residential buildings are an important parameter of urban development and a sign of the quality of public life. In the Early Republic Period, the administration recognised the importance of propagating new housing designed to illustrate a broader modernisation of society. They intended to show modern life with the new dwellings' plan organisation, design approach, construction techniques and materials. Before the Republic, people were living in traditional houses with their family. Most traditional houses were constructed in a conventional style, constructed with local materials and traditional plans and schemes. Now, they were to be built using internationally available materials to illustrate a modern lifestyle, one similar to European houses. From 1945 on, new urban planning for Kayseri was proposed with the  (Tomsu and Belene, 1937) and General Photography in 2017 (Hikmet Eldek Güner Archive) demolition of the historical dwelling area of the city and the construction of a new and modern residential district for the public (Eldek Güner, 2014). One of these districts is Sahabiye located in the centre of the city.

Sahabiye District
Sahabiye District emerged according to the 1945 urban plan design by Ahmet Aru who designed nearly all the city plans of Turkey in the 1940s (Kocatürk and Bakır, 2013). Its construction started in 1945 and in time, buildings were completed by different contractors as private investors or by the municipality. In this area, the layout was according to plan, but dwellings were designed by different architects according to a modern design approach. In the 1950s this district was the prestige quarter of the city. The upper-income group lived there between 1950-1990, moving over time to the next new prestige area (Oral, 2006).
These houses were constructed in two or three storeys using a mix of reinforced concrete techniques and traditional construction systems. They were separated from traditional houses by the modern plan. In traditional houses, the toilet and kitchen were often located in the courtyard but in new houses, all service spaces were located in the house. That was considered a sign of a modern lifestyle and people who lived there had to adapt accordingly. Additionally, previously, people lived in buildings with their family members, but in the low storey apartments, they lived together with unrelated individuals; this resulted in asocial modernisation of the public.
Over time, the district lost its importance and owners started to move to new prestige districts of Kayseri. By the 1990s an increasing number of properties were rented, and little maintenance was carried out, leading to visible damage to the buildings. During the 2000s, the district was used by lower income groups and refugees, with a resulting change in the social and economic status. In the 2010s, the municipality decided to transform area to the New Life (western life style) Centre of Kayseri with a national commercial and architectural competition (Arkitera). The competition was not completed because of some informal implementation in the process; however, today, the municipality has prepared a new plan with a private architectural office for a new urban transformation of the Sahabiye District. According to the new urban transformation plan, all districts will be demolished and new skyscrapers constructed in the area (Spdo.com, 2015). Sahabiye District will again become a model of modern life designed according to the new Republic of Turkey's ideology. Sahabiye District had been conserved because of its urban, architectural, social, economic, political values, and maintained according to the original function and building style. However, today all the area has been demolished to construct high-rise buildings.

Conclusion
The "modern buildings" constructed in the Early Republic Period have special importance because of their values. They have both ideological values such as political, social and cultural; however, they also have architectural values, including techniques and material. These then modern buildings affected people's lives and how they learned how to live and work in a modern and healthy environment. They deserve to be preserved and transferred to the following generations, but today, unfortunately, they are faced with demolition in all cities of Turkey.
In Kayseri, these modern buildings are in the same situation. Some have already collapsed or are no longer in use, or in poor structural condition. Some are occupied, but their originality has disappeared over time, with just a few conserved and used in their original function.
This paper highlights some examples of modern buildings and their situation in Kayseri, and provides discussion about modern architectural heritage and their conservation. The general values of these areas and buildings are evaluated under two classifications. The first classification covers the physical values.
• One of the most significant conservation aspects is that, today, these buildings preserve their original space. Their territories have not changed. • Buildings areas were not planted during the construction period but were all planted later with specific trees suitable to the Kayseri weather conditions, becoming a green reserve of the city, with all the trees registered. • Main buildings, constructed in the Early Republican Period, still exist today in all areas. • They must be conserved because of their designers such as Paul Bonatz, Leman Tomsu, German and Russian architects who were very famous in that period. • The buildings were constructed in reinforced concrete system that was not widely used in that period. The techniques of the 1930s-1940s were used. • Many special technical details were used in structures, especially superstructure details. • In factories and the technical school, air condition shafts were opened in the vanishing points of circular beams. Using a column beam system leads to both structural and technical details like air conditioning. • In all cases, illumination is largely based on natural lighting, not perpendicular, but horizontally by roof windows. The quality of illumination is very high in these examples. • In respect of their height, buildings are very much on a human scale. This is also important because today, urban development is based on high rise buildings and human scale sensitivity is lost. • From a general urban perspective, they were far from the city centre when they were first constructed, but today they are in the city centre. Consequently, their monetary values have increased, increasing the desire to demolish them and construct high-rise buildings in their place.
The second classification focuses on the social values of the examples.
• They were built in the Early Republic Period to modernise society, to bring a new lifestyle into every aspect of life (production, education, entertainment and private living space). • They were built as a part of a development plan of the new administration. The state aimed to realise development not only in the economy but also in social life. This aim was supposed to be achieved by building great complexes as exemplary models in Anatolian cities. These models were the prototypes of modern production methods, work conditions, entertainment and a relaxing, healthy life. They were the pioneers of the new lifestyle of the Early Republican Period. • Examples built in Kayseri spearheaded this change with its various social values. They were built to show a western lifestyle and offer a model to the city, which aimed to develop not only economically but also socially. • The environment of the examples had the structures planned according to modern design principles. • They were the prestige areas of the city.
These reasons are general to the conservation of many cases. Evaluated in detail, they create a strong case for preservation. However, the main aim of this paper is to stimulate and start a conservation discussion about the Early Republic Period Architecture in the case of the buildings in Kayseri.